Introduction to Corruption Throughout History
History researchers Ronald Cruzi, Ji. Werner, and André Vitoria present an exciting look at the history of corruption in their book "Anti-corruption in the course of history". The book, translated by Ihab Abdel Rahim and published in two parts by the Kuwaiti series "World of Knowledge", explores the phenomenon of corruption in the world and the measures taken to combat it across different ages.
Defining Corruption
The definition of corruption varies from one era to another, from one party to another, and from politician to another. For a hard Christian, corruption may include tax fraud, prostitution, and bribery. For a hard Islamist, it may encompass alcohol, travel, homosexuality, cinema, and theater. This diversity in definitions has made it challenging to develop a unified approach to combating corruption worldwide.
Historical Examples of Corruption
Mesopotamia and the Ottoman Empire
In ancient Mesopotamia and the Ottoman Empire, the lack of separation between the state treasury and the Ministry of Finance led to significant corruption. Governors, their families, and associates were often above the law, engaging in embezzlement and bribery at the highest levels. The Ottoman Empire referred to bribes as "Fessad", or the exploitation of position, rather than using the term "bribery" directly.
Great Britain in the 17th and 18th Centuries
Researcher Mark Knights notes that colonialism itself can be considered a form of corruption sponsored by the state. The term "Patriot" was used in England in the 16th century to describe honest politicians fighting against corruption. Knights’ report on corruption in Great Britain during the 17th and 18th centuries highlights the deep-seated nature of corruption in the country’s history.
The Story of Harpalus
One of the most interesting stories of corruption in antiquity is that of Harpalus, a noble in the court of Alexander the Great. Harpalus used Alexander’s absence during his wars in the east to flee with a significant portion of the treasury, approximately 700,000 staters, which was half of the Athens treasury at the time. He was later arrested but managed to escape with 350,000 staters after bribing his captors.
Modern-Day Corruption
The researcher Ronald Cruzi cites the example of Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands, who was involved in a scandal in 1977. The prince, who was also the Inspector General of the Dutch Army and an ambassador for several humanitarian organizations, received bribes from the Lockheed company. The investigation revealed that the prince had received between $4 and $6 million from Lockheed between 1968 and 1977.
Corruption in the Middle East
Iraq in the Dark Ages
There are limited official records of corruption in the Middle East before 1500 AD. However, books by Minister al-Buwaihi Miskaweh (died in 1030 AD) reveal the weakness of the state and the spread of corruption during the Abbasid era. Corruption was not referred to by name but was described as "moral evil" and the abuse of power. Governors, rulers, ministers, and their children were often involved in corruption, while bribery and preference were common among state employees.
Methods of Combating Corruption
The state used various methods to combat corruption, including the establishment of a "Board for Complaints" to address citizens’ grievances against injustice. Ministers or secondary employees were tasked with investigating complaints. Another method was "confiscation and debate", which involved forcing state employees to return embezzled funds. The corrupt were often thrown into prison until they returned the embezzled amount, after which they were released.
Conclusion
Corruption has been a persistent issue throughout history, from ancient Mesopotamia to modern times. Despite efforts to combat it, corruption remains a significant challenge worldwide. The book "Anti-corruption in the course of history" provides valuable insights into the history of corruption and the measures taken to address it. By understanding the roots and evolution of corruption, we can better develop strategies to combat it in the present and future.
